TY - JOUR
T1 - Ambient air quality in the holy city of Makkah
T2 - A source apportionment with elemental enrichment factors (EFs) and factor analysis (PMF)
AU - Nayebare, Shedrack R.
AU - Aburizaiza, Omar S.
AU - Siddique, Azhar
AU - Carpenter, David O.
AU - Hussain, Mirza M.
AU - Zeb, Jahan
AU - Aburiziza, Abdullah J.
AU - Khwaja, Haider A.
N1 - Publisher Copyright:
© 2018
PY - 2018/12
Y1 - 2018/12
N2 - Air pollution remains a major global public health and environmental issue. We assessed the levels of PM2.5 and delineated the major sources in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) sampling was performed from February 26, 2014–January 27, 2015 in four cycles/seasons. Samples were analyzed for black carbon (BC) and trace elements (TEs). PM2.5 source apportionment was performed by computing enrichment factors (EFs) and positive matrix factorization (PMF). Backward-in time trajectories were used to assess the long-range transport. Significant seasonal variations in PM2.5 were observed, Spring: 113 ± 67.1, Summer: 88.3 ± 36.4, Fall: 67.8 ± 24, and Winter: 67.6 ± 36.9 μg m−3. The 24-h PM2.5 exceeded the WHO (25 μg m−3) and Saudi Arabia's (35 μg m−3) guidelines, with an air quality index (AQI) of “unhealthy to hazardous” to human health. Most delta–C computations were below zero, indicating minor contributions from bio-mass burning. TEs were primarily Si, Ca, Fe, Al, S, K and Mg, suggesting major contributions from soil (Si, Ca, Fe, Al, Mg), and industrial and vehicular emissions (S, Ca, Al, Fe, K). EF defined two broad categories of TEs as: anthropogenic (Cu, Zn, Eu, Cl, Pb, S, Br and Lu), and earth-crust derived (Al, Si, Na, Mg, Rb, K, Zr, Ti, Fe, Mn, Sr, Y, Cr, Ga, Ca, Ni and Ce). Notably, all the anthropogenic TEs can be linked to industrial and vehicular emissions. PMF analysis defined four major sources as: vehicular emissions, 30.1%; industrial-mixed dust, 28.9%; soil/earth-crust, 24.7%; and fossil-fuels/oil combustion, 16.3%. Plots of wind trajectories indicated wind direction and regional transport as major influences on air pollution levels in Makkah. In collusion, anthropogenic emissions contributed >75% of the observed air pollution in Makkah. Developing strategies for reducing anthropogenic emissions are paramount to controlling particulate air pollution in this region.
AB - Air pollution remains a major global public health and environmental issue. We assessed the levels of PM2.5 and delineated the major sources in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) sampling was performed from February 26, 2014–January 27, 2015 in four cycles/seasons. Samples were analyzed for black carbon (BC) and trace elements (TEs). PM2.5 source apportionment was performed by computing enrichment factors (EFs) and positive matrix factorization (PMF). Backward-in time trajectories were used to assess the long-range transport. Significant seasonal variations in PM2.5 were observed, Spring: 113 ± 67.1, Summer: 88.3 ± 36.4, Fall: 67.8 ± 24, and Winter: 67.6 ± 36.9 μg m−3. The 24-h PM2.5 exceeded the WHO (25 μg m−3) and Saudi Arabia's (35 μg m−3) guidelines, with an air quality index (AQI) of “unhealthy to hazardous” to human health. Most delta–C computations were below zero, indicating minor contributions from bio-mass burning. TEs were primarily Si, Ca, Fe, Al, S, K and Mg, suggesting major contributions from soil (Si, Ca, Fe, Al, Mg), and industrial and vehicular emissions (S, Ca, Al, Fe, K). EF defined two broad categories of TEs as: anthropogenic (Cu, Zn, Eu, Cl, Pb, S, Br and Lu), and earth-crust derived (Al, Si, Na, Mg, Rb, K, Zr, Ti, Fe, Mn, Sr, Y, Cr, Ga, Ca, Ni and Ce). Notably, all the anthropogenic TEs can be linked to industrial and vehicular emissions. PMF analysis defined four major sources as: vehicular emissions, 30.1%; industrial-mixed dust, 28.9%; soil/earth-crust, 24.7%; and fossil-fuels/oil combustion, 16.3%. Plots of wind trajectories indicated wind direction and regional transport as major influences on air pollution levels in Makkah. In collusion, anthropogenic emissions contributed >75% of the observed air pollution in Makkah. Developing strategies for reducing anthropogenic emissions are paramount to controlling particulate air pollution in this region.
KW - Black carbon
KW - Enrichment factor
KW - Makkah
KW - PM
KW - PMF
KW - Saudi Arabia
KW - Trace elements
UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=85055984571&partnerID=8YFLogxK
U2 - 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.09.086
DO - 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.09.086
M3 - Article
C2 - 30408866
AN - SCOPUS:85055984571
SN - 0269-7491
VL - 243
SP - 1791
EP - 1801
JO - Environmental Pollution
JF - Environmental Pollution
ER -